The Impact of Integrating Handwritten Drafts and AI-Assisted Revisions on EFL Learners’ Self-Directed Writing Skills

doi:10.18627/jslg.41.2.202508.177

All Issue

2025 Vol.41, Issue 2 Preview Page Next Page

Research Article

The Impact of Integrating Handwritten Drafts and AI-Assisted Revisions on EFL Learners’ Self-Directed Writing Skills: Lee, Younghwa^1*; ¹Sun Moon University

31 August 2025. pp. 177-191

PDF

Abstract

This study aims to examine the impact of integrating handwritten drafts and AI-assisted revisions on EFL learners’ self-directed writing skills in a Korean university classroom. Data collected from writing samples and questionnaires provided both qualitative and quantitative insights. The findings indicate that handwriting facilitated idea generation, planning, and cognitive engagement, while AI-assisted revisions enhanced linguistic accuracy and writing confidence through targeted feedback. The combined use of both modalities promoted learners’ self-directed writing skills, critical reflection, and the adoption of process-oriented revision strategies. While students reported increased self-awareness and motivation, they also expressed concerns regarding overreliance on AI and emphasized the need to balance traditional and digital approaches. These results emphasize the value of thoughtfully blending analog and digital writing practices to cultivate resilient and adaptable writing skills in EFL contexts.

Keywords

handwritten draft

AI-assisted revision

self-directed writing

integration

References

Alharbi, W. 2023. AI in the Foreign Language Classroom: A Pedagogical Overview of Automated Writing Assistance Tools. Education Research International, 4253331, 1-15. 10.1155/2023/4253331
Bacon, E. D. and Kraus, H. 2025. Improving Academic Writing Proficiency for EFL Students: Leveraging ChatGPT Using Data-Driven Learning Principles. rEFLections 32.1, 550-575. 10.61508/refl.v32i1.280410
Bok, E. and Cho, Y. 2020. Examining Korean Students’ Self‑directed English Learning Practices in General English Classes at College. Korean Journal of General Education 14.4, 113-131. 10.46392/kjge.2020.14.4.113
Chen, J. 2024. Writing and Revising in Second Language Classrooms: The Role of Self-regulation in Cultivating Expert Writers. Singapore: Springer. 10.1007/978-981-96-1230-7
Clarke, V. and Braun, V. 2013. Teaching Thematic Analysis: Overcoming Challenges and Developing Strategies for Effective Learning. The Psychologist 26.2, 120-123.
Farahian, M. 2015. Assessing EFL Learners’ Writing Metacognitive Awareness. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies 11.2, 39-51.
Hossain, M. K. 2025. Teachers’ Perspectives on Integrating ChatGPT into EFL Writing Instruction. TESOL Communications 41.1, 41-60.
Huston, J. 2025. Scaffolded Integration: Aligning AI Literacy with Authentic Assessment through a Revised Taxonomy in Education. FAR Journal of Education and Sociology 2.1, 29-54.
Hyland, K. 2004. Genre and Second Language Writing. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 10.3998/mpub.23927
Hyland, K. 2019. Second Language Writing (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jeon, E. Y. 2018. The Effect of Learner-Centered EFL Writing Instruction on Korean University Students’ Writing Anxiety and Perception. TESOL International Journal 13.3, 100-112.
Kang, S. and Sung, M. 2024. EFL Students’ Self-directed Learning of Conversation Skills with AI Chatbots. Language Learning & Technology 28.1, 1-19. 10.64152/10125/73600
Kellogg, R. T. 2008. Training Writing Skills: A Cognitive Developmental Perspective. Journal of Writing Research 1.1, 1-26. 10.17239/jowr-2008.01.01.1
Kim, S. 2025. A Study on Korean EFL Students’ Perceptions of ChatGPT Feedback in Argumentative Writing. New Korean Journal of English Language and Literature 76.2, 173-200.
Lai, Z. C. C. 2025. The impact of AI‑assisted Blended Learning on Writing Efficacy and Resilience. International Journal of Computer‑Assisted Language Learning and Teaching 15.1, 1-21. 10.4018/IJCALLT.377174
Lee, J. and Choi, H. 2024. ChatGPT as a Tool in EFL Writing: An Analysis of Students Usage and Perceptions. Korean Journal of Applied Linguistics 40.3, 3-28. 10.17154/kjal.2024.03.40.3.3
Lestari, S. 2024. Does Typing or Handwriting Exam Responses Make Any Difference? Evidence from the Literature. Research Matters 38, 66-81.
Mangen, A. and Balsvik, B. 2016. Pen or Keyboard in Beginning Writing Instruction? Some Perspectives from Embodied Cognition. Trends in Neuroscience and Education 5.3, 99-106. 10.1016/j.tine.2016.06.003
Mangen, A., Anda, L. G., Oxborough, G. H., and Brønnick, K. 2015. Handwriting Versus Keyboard Writing: Effect on Word Recall. Journal of Writing Research 7.2, 227-247. 10.17239/jowr-2015.07.02.01
Marzuki, W., Widiati, U., Rusdin, D., Darwin, C., and Indrawati, I. 2023. The Impact of AI Writing Tools on the Content and Organization of Students’ Writing: EFL Teachers’ Perspective. Cogent Education 10.2, 2236469. 10.1080/2331186X.2023.2236469
Medwell, J., Strand, S., and Wray, D. 2007. Handwriting: What Do We Know and What Do We Need to Know? Journal of Reading, Literacy 41.1, 10-15. 10.1111/j.1467-9345.2007.00453.x
Mohamed, P. 2024. Exploring Ethical Dimensions of AI-enhanced Language Education: A Literature Perspective. Technology in Language Teaching & Learning 6.3, 1-11. 10.29140/tltl.v6n3.1813
Mu, C. and Carrington, S. 2007. An Investigation of Three Chinese Students’ English Writing Strategies. TESL-EJ: The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language 11.1, 1-23.
Mueller, P. A. and Oppenheimer, D. M. 2014. The Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand over Laptop Note Taking. Psychological Science 25.6, 1159-1168. 10.1177/0956797614524581
Oxford, R. L. 2016. Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies: Self‑regulation in Context (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Teng, M. F. 2024. A Systematic Review of ChatGPT for English as a Foreign Language Writing: Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations. International Journal of TESOL Studies 6.3, 36-57.
Teng, M. F. and Yue, M. 2023. Metacognitive Writing Strategies, Critical Thinking Skills, and Academic Writing Performance: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach. Metacognition and Learning 18, 237-260. 10.1007/s11409-022-09328-5
Tran, T. T. T. 2025. Enhancing EFL Writing Revision Practices: The Impact of AI- and Teacher-generated Feedback and Their Sequences. Education Sciences 15.2, 232. 10.3390/educsci15020232
Ushioda, E. 2011. Language Learning Motivation, Self and Identity: Current Theoretical Perspectives. Computer Assisted Language Learning 24.3, 199-210. 10.1080/09588221.2010.538701
Wang, C., Li, Z., and Bonk, C. 2024. Understanding Self-directed Learning in AI-assisted Writing: A Mixed-methods Study of Postsecondary Learners. Computers & Education: Artificial Intelligence 6, 100247. 10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100247
Yang, H., Gao, C., and Shen, H. 2024. Learner Interaction with, and Response to, AI-programmed Automated Writing Evaluation Feedback in EFL writing: An Exploratory Study. Education and Information Technologies 29, 3837-3858. 10.1007/s10639-023-11991-3
Zhai, C., Wibowo, S., and Li, L. D. 2024. The Effects of Over-reliance on AI Dialogue Systems on Students’ Cognitive Abilities: A Systematic Review. Smart Learning Environment 11, 28. 10.1186/s40561-024-00316-7
Zimmerman, B. J. 2002. Becoming a Self‑regulated Learner: An Overview. Theory into Practice 41.2, 64-70. 10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2

Information

Publisher :The Modern Linguistic Society of Korea
Publisher(Ko) :한국현대언어학회
Journal Title :The Journal of Studies in Language
Journal Title(Ko) :언어연구
Volume : 41
No :2
Pages :177-191
DOI :https://doi.org/10.18627/jslg.41.2.202508.177

[1] Alharbi, W. 2023. AI in the Foreign Language Classroom: A Pedagogical Overview of Automated Writing Assistance Tools. Education Research International, 4253331, 1-15. 10.1155/2023/4253331

[2] Bacon, E. D. and Kraus, H. 2025. Improving Academic Writing Proficiency for EFL Students: Leveraging ChatGPT Using Data-Driven Learning Principles. rEFLections 32.1, 550-575. 10.61508/refl.v32i1.280410

[3] Bok, E. and Cho, Y. 2020. Examining Korean Students’ Self‑directed English Learning Practices in General English Classes at College. Korean Journal of General Education 14.4, 113-131. 10.46392/kjge.2020.14.4.113

[4] Chen, J. 2024. Writing and Revising in Second Language Classrooms: The Role of Self-regulation in Cultivating Expert Writers. Singapore: Springer. 10.1007/978-981-96-1230-7

[5] Clarke, V. and Braun, V. 2013. Teaching Thematic Analysis: Overcoming Challenges and Developing Strategies for Effective Learning. The Psychologist 26.2, 120-123.

[6] Farahian, M. 2015. Assessing EFL Learners’ Writing Metacognitive Awareness. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies 11.2, 39-51.

[7] Hossain, M. K. 2025. Teachers’ Perspectives on Integrating ChatGPT into EFL Writing Instruction. TESOL Communications 41.1, 41-60.

[8] Huston, J. 2025. Scaffolded Integration: Aligning AI Literacy with Authentic Assessment through a Revised Taxonomy in Education. FAR Journal of Education and Sociology 2.1, 29-54.

[9] Hyland, K. 2004. Genre and Second Language Writing. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 10.3998/mpub.23927

[10] Hyland, K. 2019. Second Language Writing (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[11] Jeon, E. Y. 2018. The Effect of Learner-Centered EFL Writing Instruction on Korean University Students’ Writing Anxiety and Perception. TESOL International Journal 13.3, 100-112.

[12] Kang, S. and Sung, M. 2024. EFL Students’ Self-directed Learning of Conversation Skills with AI Chatbots. Language Learning & Technology 28.1, 1-19. 10.64152/10125/73600

[13] Kellogg, R. T. 2008. Training Writing Skills: A Cognitive Developmental Perspective. Journal of Writing Research 1.1, 1-26. 10.17239/jowr-2008.01.01.1

[14] Kim, S. 2025. A Study on Korean EFL Students’ Perceptions of ChatGPT Feedback in Argumentative Writing. New Korean Journal of English Language and Literature 76.2, 173-200.

[15] Lai, Z. C. C. 2025. The impact of AI‑assisted Blended Learning on Writing Efficacy and Resilience. International Journal of Computer‑Assisted Language Learning and Teaching 15.1, 1-21. 10.4018/IJCALLT.377174

[16] Lee, J. and Choi, H. 2024. ChatGPT as a Tool in EFL Writing: An Analysis of Students Usage and Perceptions. Korean Journal of Applied Linguistics 40.3, 3-28. 10.17154/kjal.2024.03.40.3.3

[17] Lestari, S. 2024. Does Typing or Handwriting Exam Responses Make Any Difference? Evidence from the Literature. Research Matters 38, 66-81.

[18] Mangen, A. and Balsvik, B. 2016. Pen or Keyboard in Beginning Writing Instruction? Some Perspectives from Embodied Cognition. Trends in Neuroscience and Education 5.3, 99-106. 10.1016/j.tine.2016.06.003

[19] Mangen, A., Anda, L. G., Oxborough, G. H., and Brønnick, K. 2015. Handwriting Versus Keyboard Writing: Effect on Word Recall. Journal of Writing Research 7.2, 227-247. 10.17239/jowr-2015.07.02.01

[20] Marzuki, W., Widiati, U., Rusdin, D., Darwin, C., and Indrawati, I. 2023. The Impact of AI Writing Tools on the Content and Organization of Students’ Writing: EFL Teachers’ Perspective. Cogent Education 10.2, 2236469. 10.1080/2331186X.2023.2236469

[21] Medwell, J., Strand, S., and Wray, D. 2007. Handwriting: What Do We Know and What Do We Need to Know? Journal of Reading, Literacy 41.1, 10-15. 10.1111/j.1467-9345.2007.00453.x

[22] Mohamed, P. 2024. Exploring Ethical Dimensions of AI-enhanced Language Education: A Literature Perspective. Technology in Language Teaching & Learning 6.3, 1-11. 10.29140/tltl.v6n3.1813

[23] Mu, C. and Carrington, S. 2007. An Investigation of Three Chinese Students’ English Writing Strategies. TESL-EJ: The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language 11.1, 1-23.

[24] Mueller, P. A. and Oppenheimer, D. M. 2014. The Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand over Laptop Note Taking. Psychological Science 25.6, 1159-1168. 10.1177/0956797614524581

[25] Oxford, R. L. 2016. Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies: Self‑regulation in Context (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

[26] Teng, M. F. 2024. A Systematic Review of ChatGPT for English as a Foreign Language Writing: Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations. International Journal of TESOL Studies 6.3, 36-57.

[27] Teng, M. F. and Yue, M. 2023. Metacognitive Writing Strategies, Critical Thinking Skills, and Academic Writing Performance: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach. Metacognition and Learning 18, 237-260. 10.1007/s11409-022-09328-5

[28] Tran, T. T. T. 2025. Enhancing EFL Writing Revision Practices: The Impact of AI- and Teacher-generated Feedback and Their Sequences. Education Sciences 15.2, 232. 10.3390/educsci15020232

[29] Ushioda, E. 2011. Language Learning Motivation, Self and Identity: Current Theoretical Perspectives. Computer Assisted Language Learning 24.3, 199-210. 10.1080/09588221.2010.538701

[30] Wang, C., Li, Z., and Bonk, C. 2024. Understanding Self-directed Learning in AI-assisted Writing: A Mixed-methods Study of Postsecondary Learners. Computers & Education: Artificial Intelligence 6, 100247. 10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100247

[31] Yang, H., Gao, C., and Shen, H. 2024. Learner Interaction with, and Response to, AI-programmed Automated Writing Evaluation Feedback in EFL writing: An Exploratory Study. Education and Information Technologies 29, 3837-3858. 10.1007/s10639-023-11991-3

[32] Zhai, C., Wibowo, S., and Li, L. D. 2024. The Effects of Over-reliance on AI Dialogue Systems on Students’ Cognitive Abilities: A Systematic Review. Smart Learning Environment 11, 28. 10.1186/s40561-024-00316-7

[33] Zimmerman, B. J. 2002. Becoming a Self‑regulated Learner: An Overview. Theory into Practice 41.2, 64-70. 10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2

The Journal of Studies in Language ISSN:1225-4770(Print) 2671-6151(Online) 언어연구

All Issue